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Arthropod-Borne and Rodent-Borne Virus Infections

Chapter 215 | Part 5: Infectious Diseases · Part 5 – Infectious Diseases: Viral (incl. HIV) · Chapter 215


Key Clinical Points

  1. Rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is the most critical intervention; RIG must be infiltrated into all wounds and never mixed with vaccine.
  2. Rabies vaccine schedule for PEP: 4 doses IM on days 0, 3, 7, and 14 (5th dose on day 28 only for immunocompromised).
  3. Rabies PEP is safe in pregnancy; glucocorticoids/immunosuppression interfere with immunity and should be avoided unless essential.
  4. Human RIG is preferred over equine-derived RIG (which can be used if human is unavailable at a dose of 40 IU/kg, but carries risk of anaphylaxis and serum sickness).
  5. Vesicular stomatitis virus causes conjunctivitis and influenza-like illness in humans.
  6. Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHF) include Lassa, Junin, Machupo, and Ebola-related viruses; transmission is often via rodent excreta/secreta.
  7. Arboviral encephalitis includes Eastern equine, Western equine, and Japanese encephalitis.
  8. Ribavirin is used for severe cases of Vesicular stomatitis and for Lassa fever.
  9. Monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Inmazeb, Ebanga) are the specific treatments for Ebola/VHF.
  10. Zoonotic virus classification does not predict clinical symptoms in humans.

1. DEFINITION & OVERVIEW

This chapter summarizes the major features of selected arthropod-borne and rodent-borne viruses and associated infections/disease. Many are spread among animals without infecting humans, while others infect humans incidentally with few causing disease. Some are regularly introduced into human populations via arthropods or chronically infected rodents.

Zoonotic viruses are taxonomically diverse (differing in virion morphology, replication strategy, genomic organization, and genome sequence). Classification does not predict clinical symptoms in humans.

1.1 Classification of Zoonotic Viruses

Arthropod-borne/rodent-borne zoonotic virus classes: ◦ Alsuviricetes (Togaviridae) ◦ Bunyaviricetes (Arenaviridae, Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, Phenuiviridae) ◦ Flasuviricetes (Flaviviridae) ◦ Insthoviricetes (Orthomyxoviridae) ◦ Monjiviricetes (Bornaviridae, Rhabdoviridae) ◦ Resentoviricetes (Sedoreoviridae, Spinareoviridae) • Exception: Syr-Darya Valley fever virus (Pisoniviricetes: Picornaviridae) causes febrile disease in Central Asia.


2. EPIDEMIOLOGY

General Distribution: Zoonotic viruses are most numerous in the tropics but are found globally. • Influencing Factors: Distribution is influenced by ecological factors (rainfall, temperature). • Arthropod Transmission: ◦ Vectors develop chronic systemic infection through extrinsic incubation (1–3 weeks in mosquitoes). ◦ Transmission continues via infected salivary glands during subsequent blood meals. ◦ Some viruses maintain infections via transovarial transmission. • Human Exposure: Humans are accidental hosts via arthropod bites. • Alternative Routes: Orthoflaviviruses can be transmitted via aerosol or contaminated food (e.g., raw milk).

2.1 Geographic Distribution

Diversity: Highest in tropics; also affects temperate and frigid regions. ◦ Seasonal activity varies with environmental conditions.

2.2 Vector Ecology

Infection Source: Vectors infected by feeding on viremic hosts. ◦ Humans are accidental hosts via arthropod bites.


3. ETIOLOGY & PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Alsuviricetes (Togaviridae): ◦ Linear, positive-sense RNA genomes (9.7–11.8 kb). ◦ Enveloped icosahedral virions (60–70 nm) bud from plasma membrane. ◦ All discussed viruses are Alphavirus genus, transmitted by mosquitoes. • Bunyaviricetes (Arenaviridae): ◦ Human-infecting viruses in Mammarenavirus genus. ◦ Spherical/pleomorphic enveloped virions (50–300 nm). ◦ Two genomic RNAs (S: 3.5 kb, L: 7.5 kb) with ambisense orientation. ◦ Chronic infection in rodents; human transmission via rodent excreta/secreta. • Bunyaviricetes (Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae): ◦ Human-infecting viruses have three genomic RNAs (S: 1–2 kb, M: 3.6–5.3 kb, L: 6.4–12.3 kb). ◦ Negative-sense or ambisense polarity. ◦ Maturation in Golgi complexes; exocytosis from infected cells. ◦ Orthohantaviruses maintained by muroid rodents (horizontal transmission only). • Table 215-1 Summary: Lists over 100 zoonotic viruses categorized by syndrome: ◦ Fever and myalgia (F&M) ◦ Encephalitis (E) ◦ Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF)


4. CLINICAL FEATURES

Rabies: Progressive CNS disease with hydrophobia, aerophobia, and paralysis. • Vesicular Stomatitis Virus: Vesiculation in cattle/horses; human presentation with conjunctivitis and influenza-like illness. • Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHF): Fever, hemorrhage, multiorgan failure (Lassa, Junin, Machupo, Ebola). ◦ Transmission via rodent excreta/secreta. • Arboviral Encephalitis: Acute CNS inflammation with fever, headache, altered mental status. ◦ Includes Eastern equine encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis.

4.1 Rabies

• Progressive CNS disease with hydrophobia, aerophobia, and paralysis. ◦ 100% fatal once clinical symptoms develop.

4.2 Vesicular Stomatitis Virus

• Vesiculation in cattle/horses; human presentation with conjunctivitis and influenza-like illness.

4.3 Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHF)

• Fever, hemorrhage, multiorgan failure. ◦ Includes Lassa, Junin, Machupo, Ebola-related viruses. ◦ Transmission via rodent excreta/secreta.

4.4 Arboviral Encephalitis

• Acute CNS inflammation with fever, headache, altered mental status. ◦ Includes Eastern equine encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis.


5. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Rabies: ◦ Consider in patients with progressive CNS disease and history of animal exposure (especially bats, dogs). • Vesicular Stomatitis: ◦ Distinguish from herpes simplex, varicella-zoster. ◦ Look for characteristic vesicles on oral mucosa/dermis. • Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers: ◦ Differentiate from dengue, leptospirosis, malaria. ◦ Key indicators: Presence of hemorrhage and multiorgan failure.


6. INVESTIGATIONS & DIAGNOSIS

  1. Rabies:
  2. Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test on corneal impression smear or CSF.
  3. RT-PCR of saliva, skin biopsy, or CSF.
  4. Vesicular Stomatitis:
  5. PCR for viral RNA.
  6. Serology (IgM/IgG detection).
  7. Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers:
  8. RT-PCR for viral RNA.
  9. Antigen detection assays.
  10. Serology (IgM/IgG detection).

7. MANAGEMENT & TREATMENT

  1. Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP):
  2. RIG Administration: Infiltrate RIG into all wounds; never mix with vaccine.
  3. Vaccine Schedule: 4 doses IM on days 0, 3, 7, and 14.
  4. Immunocompromised Adjustment: Add a 5th dose on day 28.
  5. Vesicular Stomatitis:
  6. Supportive care.
  7. Ribavirin (IV or oral) for severe cases.
  8. Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers:
  9. Supportive care (fluids, oxygen, blood products).
  10. Ribavirin for Lassa fever.
  11. Monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Inmazeb, Ebanga) for Ebola/VHF.

8. PROGNOSIS & COMPLICATIONS

Rabies: ◦ 100% fatal once clinical symptoms develop. ◦ No effective treatment after onset of CNS signs. • Vesicular Stomatitis: ◦ Self-limiting; rare complications (secondary infections). ◦ No long-term sequelae in most cases. • Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers: ◦ High mortality: Lassa (~15–30%), Ebola (up to 90%). ◦ Common complications: Multiorgan failure, shock, secondary infections.


9. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Pregnancy: ◦ Rabies PEP safe. ◦ Avoid glucocorticoids/immunosuppression unless essential. • Immunocompromised Patients: ◦ Adjust vaccine schedule: Add 5th dose on day 28 for Rabies. ◦ Consider intravenous ribavirin for VHF. • Wound Care: ◦ RIG must be infiltrated into all wounds. ◦ Never mix RIG with vaccine.


10. KEY PEARLS & CLINICAL TRAPS

Rabies PEP: Immediate action is critical; RIG must be infiltrated, not mixed with vaccine. • Vesicular Stomatitis: Distinguish from herpes simplex/varicella-zoster based on mucosal vesicles. • Viral Hemorrhagic Fever: Early supportive care improves outcomes; Ribavirin for Lassa; Monoclonal antibodies for Ebola.


Reference Tables

TABLE 215-1 Zoonotic Arthropod- and Rodent-Borne Viruses That Infect Humans

Harrison's 22e, p.1659

VIRUS TAXON VIRUS (ABBREVIATION) MAJOR NONHUMAN HOST(S)a VECTOR(S) SYNDROMEb
Iquitos virus (IQTV) Unknown Unknown F&M
Itaquí virus (ITQV) Capuchins (Cebus spp.), opossums,
rodents
Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Jamestown Canyon virus
(JCV)
Predominantly white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus), but also bison,
elk, and moose
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles,
Coquillettidia, Culiseta, Ochlerotatus spp.)
F&M, E
Keystone virus (KEYV) Rabbits, squirrels Mosquitoes (Ochlerotatus atlanticus) E
La Crosse virus (LACV) Chipmunks, squirrels Mosquitoes (Ochlerotatus triseriatus) F&M, E
Lumbo virus (LUMV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Aedes pembaensis) F&M, E
Madrid virus (MADV) Capuchins (Cebus spp.), opossums,
rodents
Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Maguari virus (MAGV) Birds, cattle, horses, sheep, water buffalo Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex,
Psorophora, Wyeomyia spp.)
F&M
Marituba virus (MTBV) Capuchins (Cebus spp.), opossums,
rodents
Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Murutucú virus (MURV) Capuchins (Cebus spp.), opossums, pale-
throated sloths (Bradypus tridactylus),
rodents
Mosquitoes (Coquillettidia, Culex spp.) F&M
Nepuyo virus (NEPV) Bats (Artibeus spp.), rodents Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Ngari virus (NRIV) Cattle, goats, sheep Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex spp.) F&M, VHF
Nyando virus (NDV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles spp.),
sandflies (Lutzomyia spp.)
F&M
Oriboca virus (ORIV) Capuchins (Cebus spp.), opossums,
rodents
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Culex, Mansonia,
Psorophora spp.)
F&M
Oropouche virus (OROV) Marmosets (Callithrix spp.), pale-throated
sloths (B. tridactylus)
Biting midges (Culicoides paraensis),
mosquitoes (Coquillettidia venezuelensis,
Culex quinquefasciatus, Mansonia spp.,
Ochlerotatus serratus)
F&M, E
Ossa virus (OSSAV) Rodents Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Pongola virus (PGAV) Cattle, donkeys, goats, sheep Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Mansonia
spp.)
F&M
Restan virus (RESV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) F&M
Shokwe virus (SHOV) Rodents Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Mansonia
spp.)
F&M
Shuni virus (SHUV) Horses, livestock Mosquitoes (Culex theileri, Culicoides spp.) E
Snowshoe hare virus
(SSHV)
Collared lemmings, snowshoe hares,
squirrels, voles
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Culiseta, Ochlerotatus,
Simulium spp.)
F&M, E
Tacaiuma virus (TCMV) Nonhuman primates Mosquitoes (Anopheles, Haemagogus
spp.)
F&M
Tˇ ahynˇ a virus (TAHV) Boars, cattle, deer, dogs, eulipotyphla,
foxes, hares, horses, pigs, rodents
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex,
Culiseta spp.)
F&M, E
Tataguine virus (TATV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Anopheles spp.) F&M
Trubanaman virus (TRUV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Anopheles, Culex spp.) (A&R)
Wyeomyia virus (WYOV) Unknown Mosquitoes (Wyeomyia spp.) F&M
Xingu virus (XINV) Unknown Unknown F&M
Zungarococha virus
(ZUNV)
Unknown Unknown F&M
Alkhurma hemorrhagic
fever virus (AHFV)j
Livestock? Argasid ticks (Ornithodoros savignyi),
ixodid ticks (Hyalomma dromedarii, H.
rufipes)
Apoi virus (APOIV) Field mice, voles Unknown
Banzi virus (BANV) Rodents? Mosquitoes (Culex rubinotus)
Bussuquara virus (BSQV) Cotton rats, monkeys, spiny-rats Mosquitoes (Culex spp.)
Cacipacoré virus (CPCV) Birds, horses, nonhuman primates, water
buffalo
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex spp.)
Dakar bat virus (DBV) Bats Unknown
Dengue viruses 1–4
(DENV 1–4)
Nonhuman primates Mosquitoes (predominantly Aedes aegypti,
A. albopictus)
Edge Hill virus (EHV) Bandicoots, dogs, wallabies Mosquitoes (Aedes vigilax, Culex
annulirostris)
Ilhéus virus (ILHV) Birds, coatis, nonhuman primates,
rodents, reptiles, sloths, water buffalo
Mosquitoes (Aedes, Culex, Coquillettidia,
Haemagogus, Ochlerotatus, Psorophora,
Sabethes, Trichoprosopon spp.)

TABLE 215-2 Geographic Distribution of Zoonotic Arthropod-Borne or Rodent-Borne Viral Diseases AREA a Africa

Harrison's 22e, p.1664

AREAa TYPE OF DISEASEb
BUNYAVIRICETES (Arenaviridae,
Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae,
Peribunyaviridae, Phenuiviridae)
FLASUVIRICETES
(Flaviviridae)
INSTHOVIRICETES
(Orthomyxoviridae)
RESENTOVIRICETES
(Sedoreoviridae,
Spinareoviridae)
MONJIVIRICETES
(Bornaviridae,
Rhabdoviridae)
ALSUVIRICETES
(Togaviridae)
Africa Aigai, Bangui, Batai, Bhanja,
Bunyamwera, and Bwamba
virus infections, Crimean-Congo
hemorrhagic fever, Dar es Salaam,
Dugbe, Germiston, Ilesha virus
infections, Lassa fever, Lujo virus,
Nairobi sheep disease virus infection,
Ngari, Nyando, and Pongola virus
infections, Rift Valley fever, sandfly
fever, Shokwe, Shuni, Tataguine virus
infections
Alkhurma
hemorrhagic fever,
Banzi virus infection,
Dakar bat, dengue
without/with warning
signs/severe dengue,
Kédougou, Koutango,
Ntaya, Spondweni,
Usutu, Wesselsbron,
West Nile virus
infections, yellow
fever, Zika virus
disease
Dhori, Quaranfil,
Thogoto virus
infections
Lebombo, Orungo,
Tribecˇ virus infections
(Bas-Congo virus
infection,) Ekpoma
virus 1, Ekpoma
virus 2, Mundri
virus infections
Chikungunya virus
disease, o’nyong-
nyong fever,
Semliki Forest,
Sindbis virus
infections
Bhanja, Issyk-kul virus infections,
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever,
sandfly fever, Tˇahynˇ a, Tamdy virus
infections
Far Eastern tick-borne
encephalitis, Karshi,
Powassan, West Nile
virus infections
Dhori virus infections Isfahan virus
infection
Eastern
Asia
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever,
hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome, sandfly fever, severe fever
with thrombocytopenia syndrome,
Taˇchéng tick virus 1 (and 2) and
Tˇahynˇ a, Tamdy, So–nglˇıng, wetland,
and Yezo virus infections
Apoi virus infection,
dengue without/
with warning signs/
severe dengue,
Far Eastern tick-
borne encephalitis,
Japanese
encephalitis, Karshi
virus infection,
Kyasanur Forest
disease
Banna virus infection
Batai, Bhanja virus infections,
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever,
hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome, Nairobi sheep disease
virus infection, sandfly fever
Dengue without/with
warning signs/severe
dengue, Japanese
encephalitis,
Kyasanur Forest
disease, West Nile
virus infection, Zika
virus disease
Dhori, Quaranfil,
Thogoto virus
infections
Chandipura, Isfahan
virus infections,
variegated squirrel
bornavirus 1?
South-
Eastern
Asia
Batai virus infection, hemorrhagic
fever with renal syndrome
Dengue without/with
warning signs/severe
dengue, Japanese
encephalitis, West
Nile virus infection,
Zika virus disease
Chikungunya virus
disease
Aigai, Batai, Bhanja virus infections,
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever,
hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome, sandfly fever, Taˇchéng tick
virus 1, Tamdy virus infections
Alkhurma
hemorrhagic fever,
Central European tick-
borne encephalitis,
dengue without/with
warning signs/severe
dengue, West Nile
virus infection
Dhori, Quaranfil virus
infections
Latin/
Central
America
and the
Caribbean
Alenquer, Apeú virus infections,
Argentinian hemorrhagic fever,
Bolivian hemorrhagic fever,
“Brazilian hemorrhagic fever”,
Bunyamwera, Candirú, Caraparú,
Catú, Chagres, Chapare, Coclé,
Echarate, (Flexal,) Fort Sherman,
Guamá, Guaroa virus infections,
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome,
Iquitos, Itaquí, Juquitiba
virus infections, lymphocytic
choriomeningitis, Madrid, Maguari,
Maldonado, Marituba, Mayaro,
Morumbi, Murutucú, Nepuyo,
Oriboca virus infections, Oropouche
virus disease, Ossa, Punta Toro,
Restan, Serra Norte, Tacaiuma,
Trinidad virus infections, Venezuelan
hemorrhagic fever, Wyeomyia, Xingu,
Zungarococha virus infections
Bussuquara,
Cacipacoré virus
infections, dengue
without/with warning
signs/severe dengue,
Ilhéus, Rio Bravo
virus infections, Rocio
viral encephalitis,
Spondweni, St Louis
encephalitis, yellow
fever, Zika virus
disease
Piry fever, vesicular
stomatitis fever
Chikungunya
virus disease,
Madariaga,
Mayaro,
Mucambo,
Tonate, Una
virus infections,
Venezuelan equine
encephalitis

TABLE 215-3 Clinical Syndromes Caused by Zoonotic Arthropod-Borne or Rodent-Borne Viruses SYNDROME Fever and myalgia…

Harrison's 22e, p.1666

SYNDROME VIRUS
Fever and myalgia (F&M) Arenaviridae: (Flexal,) Lassa and lymphocytic choriomeningitis viruses
Flaviviridae: Bussuquara, Banzi, Cacipacoré, Dakar bat, dengue 1–4, Edge Hill, Karshi, Kédougou, Koutango, Ntaya virus, Rio Bravo,
Sepik, Spondweni, tick-borne encephalitis, Wesselsbron, and Zika viruses
Hantaviridae: Choclo virus
Nairoviridae: Dugbe, Issyk-kul, Nairobi sheep disease, So–nglˇıng viruses, Taˇchéng tick virus 1, Tamdy, wetland, Yezo virus
Orthomyxoviridae: Bourbon, Dhori, and Thogoto viruses
Peribunyaviridae: Apeú, Bangui, Batai, Bunyamwera, Bwamba, Cache Valley, California encephalitis, Caraparú, Catú, Fort Sherman,
Germiston, Guamá, Guaroa, Ilesha, Inkoo, Iquitos, Itaquí, Jamestown Canyon, La Crosse, Lumbo, Madrid, Maguari, Marituba,
Nepuyo, Ngari, Nyando, Oriboca, Oropouche, Ossa, Pongola, Restan, Shokwe, snowshoe hare, Tacaiuma, Tˇahynˇ a, Tataguine,
Wyeomyia, Xingu, and Zungarococha viruses
Phenuiviridae: Alenquer, Bhanja, Candirú, Chagres, Dar es Salaam, Echarate, Heartland, Maldonado, Morumbi, Punta Toro, Rift
Valley fever, sandfly fever Cyprus, sandfly fever Ethiopia, sandfly fever Naples, sandfly fever Sicilian, sandfly fever Turkey, Serra
Norte, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, Toscana, and Uukuniemi viruses
Sedoreoviridae: Kemerovo, Lebombo, Orungo, and Tribecˇ viruses
Spinareoviridae: Colorado tick fever, Eyach, and Salmon River viruses
Rhabdoviridae: Ekpoma virus 1, Ekpoma virus 2, Chandipura, Isfahan, Piry, vesicular stomatitis Indiana, and vesicular stomatitis New
Jersey viruses
Togaviridae: Everglades, Madariaga, Mucambo, Tonate, Una, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses
Encephalitis Arenaviridae: lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, (Whitewater Arroyo virus)
Flaviviridae: Apoi, Ilhéus, Japanese encephalitis, Karshi, Modoc, Murray Valley encephalitis, Powassan, Rocio, St. Louis
encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, Usutu, and West Nile viruses
Orthomyxoviridae: Dhori and Thogoto viruses
Bornaviridae: variegated squirrel bornavirus 1
Peribunyaviridae: Cache Valley, California encephalitis, Cristoli, Inkoo, Jamestown Canyon, Keystone, La Crosse, Lumbo, Oropouche,
snowshoe hare, Shuni, and Tˇahynˇ a viruses
Phenuiviridae: Adria, Bhanja, Chios, Rift Valley fever, (Taˇchéng tick virus 2), and Toscana viruses
Sedoreoviridae: Banna, Kemerovo, and Orungo viruses
Spinareoviridae: Colorado tick fever, Eyach, and Salmon River viruses
Rhabdoviridae: Chandipura, Mundri viruses
Togaviridae: eastern equine encephalitis, Everglades, Madariaga, Mucambo, Tonate, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and western
equine encephalitis viruses
Viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) Arenaviridae: Chapare, Guanarito, Junín, Lassa, Lujo, (lymphocytic choriomeningitis,) Machupo, and Sabiá viruses
Hantaviridae: Amur, Dobrava, El Moro Canyon, go– u, Hantaan, Kurkino, Muju, Puumala, Saaremaa, Seoul, Sochi, and Tula viruses
Nairoviridae: Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus
Peribunyaviridae: (Ilesha virus,) Ngari viruses
Phenuiviridae: Rift Valley fever and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome viruses
Flaviviridae: Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever, dengue 1–4, Kyasanur Forest disease, Omsk hemorrhagic fever, (tick-borne encephalitis,)
and yellow fever viruses
Rhabdoviridae: (Bas-Congo virus)